The oil and gas industry involves capital intensive processes with continuous output. Raw materials, such as crude oil, are converted to petroleum products on a very large-scale, making process ...

The cost of refining crude oil varies depending on the complexity of the refining process and the quality of crude oil. High-quality crude oil requires less refining and produces more high-value ...

Copper ore must undergo a complicated refining process to convert it into saleable high-purity copper products, as mined ore typically contains less than 1 percent copper. Copper refining involves ...